Interpreting Nonverbal Communication: Problems, Possibilities and Applications
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People want to know things about life, about themselves and about others. They try to make sense of events in their lives. People who are not trained in formal science draw upon their own sense of things, their personalized logic-in-use rooted in their experiences. Scientists, of course, are everyday people too, but in their research they use appropriate techniques and models to guide them in their research.
Everyday persons are heavily influenced to think along lines of normalcy; that is, they do as their parents did, or they yield to the authority of experts. People find themselves in various stages and levels of growth and experience, both in the world of science and in the practical world. The living of professional and daily life is a very uneven process. Interpretations of the the behaviors of self and others is a highly variable process. Not infrequently people are confused about their identities and their relationships.
In this chapter problems that confront researchers and everyday citizens are delineated. In addition, a section that deals with applications provides tools for self-analysis to assist the everyday traveler in life. These applications focus on the topics found in each chapter. They serve as tools or pointers for thoughtful people. Throughout the entire text, the Symbolic Interactionist view has been taken; it provides a way of integrating both research and everyday life experiences. It is a subject-oriented, practical approach that can help a person clarify the meaning of nonverbal events in her or his life.
In a very general sense, the chapters in this book have led to this chapter which is focused on practical matters that influence how a person will understand self, others and human interactions. In many ways, the ideas expressed here are distillations of the content of the previous chapters, presented in practical and useful ways. Issues that are important to both researchers and student readers are discussed.
Sensemaking is a symbolic interpretive process. All people, whether young or old, try to find meaning in life, to make sense of it. People often say that they are using common sense when they interpret an event; however, in this book, common sense and individual sensemaking are separate processes. People may think in common about life experiences such that an intersubjective knowledge base is built up, a knowledge that people say is common sense. Unfortunately, often that which is referred to as common sense is stereotypical and cliche-ridden. But, sensemaking, as used in this text, refers to a critical, evidence-based, interpretive process that is rooted in the private experiences of individuals. True, the subjective-interpretive views of people are influenced collectively by culture, gender, ethnicity, class, age, education and exposure to the media, but in the final analysis each individual must come to terms with the meaning of any event or activity based on his level of understanding.
Humans do not arrive from the womb fully packaged, ready to go in life. They emerge from the womb with an innocent but forceful scream. Later, they must learn to interpret behaviors, to enact strategies and lines of action and to present themselves in interaction, or risk being socially isolated. People approach life from various perspectives and levels of understanding because their perspective on life has been sculpted and scripted by their experiences. World travelers have distinctively different perspectives compared to people who have led restricted lives. It seems to be the case that people experience their lives horizontally and vertically. That is, they move about horizontally in a physical sense but they interpret experiences somewhat vertically, at various levels of understanding.
It is possible to go through life mindlessly, blind to self and blind to others, shutting out the possibility for new experiences. When there is little awareness, people give in to what is easy or convenient; they may see things in black and white with nothing in between or they may focus on details and miss the wider picture. That is, they may generalize from a single point, painting a wide picture from little evidence. What is promoted in this book is a kind of sophisticated awareness, a special attentiveness. The SI approach can be used to enrich a person's understanding of nonverbal communication.
Related to the above and discussed in chapter two, standpoint in life provides both opportunities and constraints. For example, many people have never seen an opera; many others have never seen a football game. The situation or place, the neighborhoods of experience, are "cocoon-like". They help people define who they are, but they restrict experiences in the outside world. People are influenced by the behaviors of place, by the habits of the residents of that place, affecting their perceptions of the social world. Human behavior is constrained, not totally free.
To be educated, presumably, is to be led out, to gain access to new experiences that widen one's social world. The student who reads this book--or any other book that is new to her-- may or may not agree with the materials and the ideas discussed but she will probably be introduced to a new way of viewing the nonverbal social world, possibly enriching her life.
Inner conversations with the self, or self-talk, are built upon the stuff of interaction, of perceptions of others, of events and self. Perceptions, of course, are heavily influenced by private experiences, which can distort them. For example, it is not uncommon for males and females to distrust one another if both have had prior negative experiences in other relationships. They may unwittingly bring the negative baggage from old relationships into the present one. In a sense, they may fulfill their own built-in prophecies merely by bringing old perceptions into new situations.
First impressions may be built on false perceptions. Age, biology, gender and ethnic background influence perceptions, which in turn, lead to expectations, each of which may be grounded falsely. As mentioned, White Americans may fear going into a Black American neighborhood, or vice versa, because of their learned perceptions. The implication is that fear underlies the perceptions. The resulting interpretation is closed, shutting off possible positive relationships. Interethnic problems may be created by early closure. What is proposed is an open, empathic and polysemic interpretation of black-white relations. Polysemic meanings are alternative constructions. Any singular event may have multiple alternative meanings. Gestures, events and circumstances are potentially polysemic in nature.
As noted by Goffman, when people meet other people they seek out information about them trying to get cues about their identities in an effort to make sense of their presence. When people are uncertain or lack important relevant information about others, the results are usually biased or distorted because the interpreters close out new, important information and substitute something that is convenient. A partial solution to the early closure problem is to practice looking for new evidence, to remain open and flexible.
Humans do not always attend to themselves, to others or to interactive events. People may not notice or distinguish how people look from one day to the next. What they do not notice in others, they may not notice in themselves. This has been described as mindlessness. On the other hand, people who are mindful pay attention to details, to fine nuances in behaviors, to signs, signals and symbols that they encounter in daily life. Such people can detect the meanings of the actions of others because they pay attention to them. Mindfulness and attentiveness, of course, are learned behaviors.
The senses provide information to their owners. The body provides feedback. Taste, touch, sight, hearing and smelling are so basic to human experience that their importance is often overlooked. Perhaps most people think of the senses as fixed entities, as having unvarying thresholds. However, the chemical, touch and other senses vary in their importance by culture and by experience. It is true that neonates make a pucker face when they taste something sour, but this is not to say that they will dislike sour tastes later on. Sensate knowledge is learned, and preferences are based on experiences. It is possible to improve the awareness and performances of the senses in nonverbal communication, just as one can learn to paint or play the piano.
Human nonverbal communication could not exist if intersubjectivity did not exist. People share perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, patterns of thinking, symbols, beliefs about the body and so on. They jointly produce behaviors and meanings. Yet, each person experiences life individually. Two people may share experiences but differ in how they interpret them. In short, there are pieces of experience known to self, not known to others. Each individual has a private store of knowledge that is tacit and unexposed. This point is particularly important in a society that is heavily influenced by the media, by advertisements or by institutions. One size does not fit all.
Research focuses on the relationship of the emotions to cognitive activity. EQ, the emotional quotient, and IQ, the intelligence quotient, have been discussed as separate activities. The SI approach emphasizes rationality, suggesting that humans make sense of themselves, of others and of interactive events, using rational thought processes. Planning involves rationality; the interpretive process is rational. As mentioned, in very early civilization, it was thought that the seat of reasoning was in the heart. Now we know that the brain and the mind produce rationality.
But humans are not rational robots. Researchers know also that emotions are associated with ideas. For example, when people talk about the American flag, they are influenced by emotions and thought together. Emotional areas of the brain fire up even as the cognitive areas fire up when discussing emotion-laden topics.
In everyday practice, people may be overwhelmed by emotional feelings; yet, in time, they can think through the issues involved. Displaced anger is the result of the failure to express emotional anger at the right target. People often displace their emotional anger by getting angry at someone who does not deserve it. The displacement of anger seems to be a major problem in the United States. People can learn about their emotions and how to use them just as they learn how to count or read.
Foreign service officers are trained to work in various cultural environments. Through training, they learn how to avoid cultural traps, stereotypical thinking and social blunders. They learn how a specific culture filters daily reality. Different cultures have different display rules, which affect the meaning and interpretation of nonverbal communication. Symbols are variously important from culture to culture as are emblems and gestures. As mentioned, it is considered rude to use the forefinger to point in the Navajo tradition or to show the sole of the foot in some Eastern countries. Road rage, of course, is rude behavior, a sign that people can not manage their emotions.
It is said that Americans have hegemonic attitudes, meaning that they exhibit ethnocentric tendencies; but the same problem occurs in other cultures, as in China, which historically has thought of itself as the center of the world. The point is, of course, that openness and acceptance of others from different cultures is important to healthy, growth-oriented intercultural relationships. These kinds of relationships, however, are achieved only through careful study and understanding. The stereotypical ugly American phenomenon can be a thing of the past.
When humans do not understand the nonverbal behavior of others, they may stigmatize it. Gender, age and ethnicity are often stigmatized, usually by name-calling. Stigmatizing is a way of making strangers of other people. The ability to make friends or to respect others can be promoted by learning how to listen empathically, identifying with others. Listening is a proactive process, a behavior that is part of the nonverbal reportoire of skillful persons.
In a society heavily influenced by the mass media there is a leveling process, sometimes referred to pejoratively as "dumbing down", a lowering of literacy, a lowering of expectations. Unless programs are produced for a sophisticated audiences, the media aim their messages to a mass audience, trying to reach as many people as possible. The effect may be that the "behavioral bar" is lowered. Pop culture, properly understood, is a rich source of sociodrama; on the other hand, much popular culture is aimed at undiscriminating audiences, such that many Americans are influenced, at least in part, by the consequent leveling of expectations. The symbolic interactionist approach as expressed in this text promotes a critical examination of the products of the mass media with the goal of enriching the participant in popular culture.
SI, in the main, calls for a living-subjects approach to research; how this is done varies considerably from researcher to researcher. Two broad streams, the situationist and the structuralist, or the Chicago School and the Iowa School, are found within SI and they often use different methodologies. Recent attempts to blend these perceived polar opposites have been suggested.
As mentioned, social scientists usually use quantitative, laboratory-type experimentation in which the numbering and coding of subjects and variables is important, or they follow a real-life approach that requires the researcher to get immersed in the subjective worlds of the participants. In SI research one can combine both types; the process of triangulation enables the living-subjects researcher to use the results of laboratory experiments, as part of the total package of methodologies. Indeed, a multiple methods approach is preferred.
SI researchers encourage a multiple methods approach to research. See the Chapter Nine methods section. Although "structural" SI researchers may tend to use surveys, field studies, lab studies, or computer simulations and 'situationists' tend to use observational, participant based observations, in general, a multiple methods approach, or triangular approach, seems best fitted to the study of nonverbal communication. Unfortunately, scholars, trained in one approach, may not experiment with others. Cross-fertilization seems to be necessary.
Scientific research is designed to get at the "truth", at least the truth in relation to a theory or hypothesis. The subject and direction that research will take varies by tradition, by funding, by the interests of the researcher and so on. As researchers know, good research is subjected to a criticism of the content and methodologies used and to replication by other scholars.
Research about naturalistic, everyday behavior is necessarily tuned in to the flow of observed behaviors, to the ways that people think and act. But, unfortunately, human behaviors are occasionally stereotyped, even by competent researchers. The stereotype may creep into a research paradigm. For example, popular stereotypes related to the "man-thing" or the "woman-thing" abound. As mentioned, scholars have shown by meta-analysis that males and females tend to be more similar in their behaviors than they are different. What is stereotypical? What is not?
The differences between the use of the spoken word and nonverbal behavior may be characterized as the difference between doing and communicating about doing. Which precedes which? Are nonverbal processes separable from verbal processes? A number of textbooks suggest that there are crucial differences. For example, it is believed that nonverbal communication is continuous, while verbal communication is discontinuous. One is analogic; the other is digital. In this book, the emphasis is placed on the interpretive process that is necessary to understand both verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
Framing Hand Movements and Language
That language evolved from gestures is an old theory that is gaining credence once again due partly to research from brain imaging studies. According to this present research, human ancestors had abilities to process general hand movements, such as grasping or picking, that themselves have grammatical structures. That is, they contain an agent, an action and an object as when a monkey (self as agent) grabs (action) a piece of food (object). This theory suggests that the ability to process language grew out of the ability to use hand signals and other nonverbal activities. Present day nonhuman primates exhibit some of these nonverbal behaviors. In short, human ancestors developed a mechanism for observing another's actions and comprehending at an abstract level the meaning of those actions.
Broca's area in the brain is linked not only to language processing but to hand and mouth movements. Broca's area is active during lip-reading. Researchers found activation in Broca's areas when people observed manual actions. There appears to be a connection between doing and communicating about doing (Azar, Nov 2000).
Gestures do not exist apart from the reasoning process; their use is learned as is language although their use may originate from and activate different parts of the brain than does vocalized language. Babies learn language only after they have sensed and explored the world nonverbally. Mead suggested something like this, his concept of the use of gestures being a basic starting point for social interaction. Recent researchers have argued that there is an inherent grammatical pattern in primate manual actions, which in humans, seems to link language use and nonverbal actions together. Speech, in this sense, is an articulation associated with and, perhaps dependent upon, the human gestural system.
As research about the relationship of nonverbal and verbal communication continues it may be most productive to study cognitive language skills in coordination with body language skills. There is an interdependence of hand and brain functions just as there is an interdependence of verbal languaging and brain functions. Further research is needed to establish the relationship of nonverbal communication to languaging processes. (Arbib & Rizzolatti, 1997; Armstrong, 1999;Armstrong, Stokoe & Wilcox,1995).
Many texts make distinctions between the concept of human behavior and nonverbal communication. Distinctions are made on several levels, mostly based on the idea of the intentionality of the subject or actor. This book emphasizes the fact that nonverbal behavior and nonverbal communication are the same thing. Perhaps it would be best to speak of behavioral communication as mentioned in the preface. This assumption is not idle speculation. Intentional or not, body communication is a result of the fact that the body is always on stage, in view of the audience or observers. Instead of assuming that nonverbal communication exists only when people intend to communicate, it makes more sense to include unintended communication as well, making the appropriate distinctions.
There are consultants who claim expertise in the selection of jury members based on their appearances and behaviors. Of course there have always been theatre coaches. In short, there are people who claim expertise in interpreting nonverbal communication. They learned their craft through experience. It is suggested that universities and colleges should include the study of nonverbal communication in their skills programs in English, Mathematics or Public Speaking. Nonverbal skills are critical to success in everyday life. See the notes for research dealing with applications.
Humans vary in their abilities to interpret human behavior, as noted above. All people are immersed in and deeply influenced by psychological, social and cultural processes, by gender, ethnicity and aging. The media, of course, saturate American society; its influence is profound.
Individuals may be very aware of the hidden, inner dynamics that influence behaviors; or, they may be relatively unable to ferret out the nature of these processes. Some individuals are able to think critically, to investigate human affairs with some sophistication; others, may pay little attention to anything but surface matters, having little cognitive complexity. Some individuals lead lives of inquiry, familiar with the arts, philosophy and science; others, have barely started on the road to emotional and cognitive growth. This section brings together various tools to help people assess their status, aiming at the middle, so to speak.
People monitor life's events, some very closely while others appear to blur "reality", paying little acute attention to social phenomena. The investigative, reflective mode enables people to fine tune their experiences, to explain to themselves and others what seems to be happening. The expectation is that people will benefit from this skilled activity.
Framing Interpretation and Inquiry
Erving Goffman, who formulated the dramaturgical method in Symbolic Interactionism, was said to have spent a great deal of time quietly observing human behaviors, perhaps by sitting in the corner in a coffee shop observing from a distance, studying human behaviors. He believed that the key to an understanding of society lay in the interpretation of everyday behaviors. For him, as it was for Blumer, everyday behavior was the foundation of society. It is no surprise, therefore, that Goffman found meaning in everyday events that others were inclined to dismiss as merely familiar and routine. He unmasked familiar objects and events, which others ignored or dismissed. The routine, for him, was a rich source of meaning.
As another example, a Harvard professor, attuned to the investigate mode, unmasks hidden meanings of artifacts that he finds in everyday life. He is able to show how past behaviors are imbedded in artifacts. Railroad terminals, buildings and sidewalks are keys to the past. He knows that materials may have been used in one time period but not in another; he knows that humans valued certain architectural forms in one time period but not in another. Like an archaeologist or a forensic expert, he is sophisticated about human inventiveness and how it is displayed. His students, of course, are learning how to 'read' materials that passersby ignore, even though they use them or see them everyday (Wolkomir & Wolkomir, April, 2000). It is this uncommon spirit of inquiry that is being promoted in this section.
The art of interpreting communicative behaviors is learned. One can become increasingly skilled at interpreting human behavior simply by keen observation. A number of sources and tools can help develop skills. For example, Morris has assembled an emblematic dictionary; DeVito has produced a workbook with questionaires and other tools to help the learner; a number of very good books about nonverbal communication are available, many of them discussed in this book; and, courses are found in college and university curricula. All of the above can help a student understand human nonverbal behavior.
The art of listening is a critical, mindful activity that receives little attention in college skill courses; when combined with artful attention and mindfulness, it helps one become skillful in the interpretation of human behavior (Hargie, 1986). Observation at the level of Goffman's ability serves as a model for students and faculty who would better understand human social behavior.
Each of the questionnaires and activities below is designed to help readers inquire into their thinking and behavior. By answering the questions or doing the activity, it is expected that the reader can learn more about self presentation skills, beliefs and orientations. The questionnaires and activities have been derived from several sources, including the author's own experiences and the experiences of students in his classes. They are not rigidly scientific; instead they present an "artful" approach to the personal study of nonverbal communication.
The Personal Body Awareness Questionnaire
Directions: Agree or disagree with the following statements by affixing a number from one to five in the blank. By using number one you are agreeing totally with the statement; by using number five, you are disagreeing totally with the statement. Numbers in between one and five indicate levels of agreement with the statement. There is no correct answer, although as you evaluate your responses, you may conclude that you want to work on one aspect or the other.
Reading Emotions and Presentations of Others
Directions. In the following exercise, take the time to write out how you have sized up the emotional behaviors of your friend or someone else, like your father, mother, brother or sister. Respond to each statement. Choose the person you are describing; make the examples fit your perceptions.
Directions: The following exercise is designed to help you sort out how you think your friend or other party is socially situated in life by observing their use of clothes and other artifacts. Do the following:
Directions. A key part of symbolic interactionism is the taking of roles. In everyday life people may play multiple roles over the course of a day in their interactions with others. How do you think you act when you play certain roles? Try to describe how you use your body and present yourself as you interact with others in the following roles. If you have not played a role before, try to describe how others play it. What are the characterisitics of each role?
My Presentational Style in Various Circumstances
Directions. How do you think you would present yourself in the following situations? Describe your probable nonverbal communication. Consider your emotions, your senses and your probable lines of action. Make the question fit your circumstances.
Directions. What do you think is your probable nonverbal behavior when you engage in interaction with others in group situations? Write your answers down.
| Statement | A. Not much | B. Somewhat | C. A great deal |
|---|---|---|---|
| l. Television influences me | __________ | __________ | ____________ |
| 2. The internet influences me | __________ | __________ | ____________ |
| 3. The telephone influences me | __________ | __________ | ____________ |
| 4. Movies influence me | __________ | __________ | ____________ |
| 5. Books influence me | __________ | __________ | ____________ |
Do you think that your own nonverbal behavior is directly influenced by any of the above media? If so, how?
Gender Orientations Questionnaire
Directions. As you encounter gendered others in your daily life, not referring to lovers or romantic partners, does there seem to be a pattern to the way that you relate to that person nonverbally? Answer the following questions. Make the question fit your circumstances.
Directions. Keep a diary of the various kinds of symbols that you use or find that other people use in their conversations. Try to place them in the context provided.
Directions. People tend to develop identifiable body behaviors. Although these behaviors are modifiable they may become part of identities. Describe your own body signature as you perceive it, relative to the following activities.
Do you think that others would describe your individuated behaviors in the same ways? Make a comparison.
Directions. In the following exercise, try to describe the stereotype that seems to prevail regarding each of the groupings of people. Show what you think are the prevailing stereotypes and what an accurate view is.
| Group | Stereotype | Accurate View |
|---|---|---|
| An aged person | ||
| An ethnic person | ||
| A male or female | ||
| A schizophrenic person | ||
| A person of influence | ||
| A caring person |
Directions. Each of these concepts is explained in the glossary of the book. Check your memory to see if you know the concept and can use it accurately.
It has been said that most people are naive scientists; that is, they interpret behavior through well-honed, sensible cognitive schemas in the laboratory of life. Unlike lower order animals, humans have the potential to change, to become what they want to be, to become skillful at nonverbal communication, increasing their effectiveness and satisfaction and improving the social climate. They can continue on this productive path over the entire life-span.
Researchers have placed a great deal of stress on the role of intersubjectivity and mutual understanding. Many problems are associated with misinterpretation of body action when people attribute false meanings to behaviors. When this occurs at the level of international politics, it can lead to serious consequences. When the messages of the body are made clear to people mistakes can be eliminated and social interaction can be improved. It is hoped that this book provides a brief and poignant statement, an approach that readers and scholars will find useful as they enjoy a healthy social life.
This chapter has focused on the issues and problems that researchers and everyday people encounter relative to nonverbal communication. It suggests that skilled nonverbal behavior is learned and that, with attentiveness and practice, humans can create effective nonverbal communication activities.
Scholars and researchers come from a variety of backgrounds that influence how they approach the study of nonverbal communication. The Symbolic Interactionist approach has been put forth as a very productive and insightful way to do research, focusing mostly on ethnographic research, but not excluding laboratory type research.
Tools to assess oneself are included implying that self assessment is the beginning of personal growth. The SI approach can increase a person's understanding of human communicative behavior.
Questions for Thought and Discussion
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. (1994). Emotional Contagion. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Hatfield, E. E., & Sprecher, S (1986). Mirror, Mirror... The Importance of Looks in Everyday Life. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Jaworski, A. (1993). The Power of Silence: Social and Pragmatic Perspectives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Jones, S. E. (1994). The Right Touch: Understanding and Using the Language of Physical Contact. Creshill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Morris, D. (1994). Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Gestures. New York: Crown Publishers.
Scheflen, A. E. (1974). How Behavior Means. Garden City, NY: Anchor/Doubleday.
Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Pragmatics of Human Communication: A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes. New York: Norton.
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